Color Names in Kreewu-latweeschu-wahzu wardnice (Eng. Russian-Latvian-German Dictionary) (1872) by K. Valdemārs [Nazwy kolorów w Kreewu-latweeschu-wahzu wardnice (pol. Słownik rosyjsko-łotewsko-niemiecki) (1872) K. Valdemārsa]

The article gives a brief insight in the late 19th century lexicographical situation in Latvia, emphasizing especially the role and place of the first Latvian dictionary that was compiled by a Latvian author – i.e., the Kreewu-latweeschu-wahzu wardnice (Eng. Russian-Latvian-German Dictionary) (1872) created by Krišjānis Valdemārs. This study analyzes one particular lexical group as it is represented in this diction­ ary – color names. The dictionary presents a rich material for research, especially Anitra Roze Color Names in Kreewu-latweeschu-wahzu wardnice 142 in the context of the semantics and morphology of color designations. It contains 146 entries describing colors and their shades, which include not only abstract but also a large number of specific color names.


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A major concern for K. Valdemārs was the domination of the German language in education, and the insufficient amount of resources alotted to Latvian and Estonian schools as compared to the German schools.In his letters to a number of highrank Russian officials, he also pointed out the many obstacles to the acquisition of the Rus sian language in these schools and emphasized the fact that without proper knowledge of Russian, the local people (Latvians and Estonians) are deprived of the opportunity to find jobs beyond the borders of the Baltic provinces.According to K. Valdemārs, in order to function equally in the public life of Russia, the local population of the Baltics had to produce a large number of civil servants of various levels.Therefore his proposals for school reform stressed the importance of publishing Russian language textbooks.In K. Valdemārs' opinion, when increasing the funding for public education, the writ ing and publication of dictionaries (including RussianLatvian and LatvianRussian dictionaries) should be particularly supported (see Назарова, 2006).
The first dictionary, published as the result of these activities, was compiled by K. Valdemārs himself with the financial support from Russia's Ministry of Enlighten ment.Russian-Latvian-German Dictionary was issued in Moscow in 1872 (Valdemārs, 1872, henceforth only page references will be given when analyzing the text of the dictionary).
As noted by linguist Liene Roze, the dictionary was originally conceived as a bilingual RussianLatvian dictionary, but K. Valdemārs decided to add the German language in order to clarify the meaning of each Latvian word (L.Roze, 1982, p. 69).Daina Zemzare specifies that "the dictionary was meant for Latvians who were learning Russian, and for Russians learning Latvian" (Zemzare, 1961, p. 218).J. L. Nazarova also notes that K. Valdemārs, seeking financial resources for the publication of the diction ary, used political argumentation, writing that this dictionary would be necessary not only for the daily needs of Latvians, but also for the interests of Russian empire (Назарова, 2006).Seven years later, also in Moscow, another Latvian-Russian-German Dictionary came out, edited by K. Valdemārs and compiled by several wellknown Latvian public and cultural figures of the time (Valdemārs, 1879).
An essential feature and novelty of these dictionaries was not only a quantitative enlargement (addition of another language), but also qualitative improvement -these dictionaries included new words coined by outstanding ethnic Latvian cultural activists of the time and members of the NeoLatvian movement (such as J. Alunāns, A. Kronvalds and others), and also words coined by the authors of the dictionary, espe cially F. Brīvzemnieks.Many of these words are now widely used.Significantly, those dictionaries did not include the later socalled barbarisms (stigmatised borrowings) which can be found in K. K. Ulmanis' dictionary issued at the same time (1872) -e.g., ādere 'vein', antvorte 'answer', bakūzis 'bakery', brūķēt 'to use', etc. Linguist Irina Dimante, describing the dictionary published in 1872, mentions that "since the dictionary was prepared during the time when Latvian written lan 117 guage was being improved, its authors, considering it their duty to contribute to this process, included neologisms and recent borrowings in the dictionary."She adds: "Thus this edition (like other NeoLatvian publications) incorporated not only those new coinages that were already socially accepted, but also individual, occasional creations" (Диманте, 2006).As observed by L. Roze, the dictionary "contains trans lations of around 50,000 Russianlanguage words" (L.Roze, 1982, p. 70), and was the first Latvian dictionary that provided grammatical information -indicating parts of speech, gender, and particularities of inflection.For the improvement of writing system (the main problem being the diacritics), ideas and tips were searched for in the writings of other authors of the period.However, the issues of writing still remain unsolved in the dictionary.Philologist D. Zemzare, however, speaks of 37,000 words and 43 print sheets (Zemzare, 1961, p. 218).
This article aims to examine one particular lexical group as reflected in the Russian-Latvian-German Dictionary of 1872 -the names of colors.This group was chosen for several reasons.First and foremost, color names used in the Latvian language have been my main area of research for several years; secondly, in the dictionary of K. Valdemārs (as compared to other dictionaries of the same period) this lexical group is particularly extensive -there are plenty of adjectives expressing nonderivative color names, also adjectives that represent various color shades, a number of compound color names, and a large number of derived words pertaining to color names -adjec tives expressing shades of colors and verbs based on color names.The dictionary also contains a number of nouns denoting animals of specific color, as well as adjectives expressing colors of animal fur or human hair.In general, we can say that such a rich lexical material pertaining to colors cannot be found in any of the earlier dictionar ies, and even in some of the dictionaries created at a later time (e.g., Latviešu valodas vārdnīca (1923Latviešu valodas vārdnīca ( -1946) ) by K. Mīlenbahs) (ME, 1923(ME, -1932;;EH, 1934EH, -1946)).
I have managed to identify a total of 146 entries representing colors or shades of colors (including compound words and derivatives).Since the number of entries denoting colors in the dictionary is so large, it was considered useful to look at them in alphabetical order by color groups, i.e. each group addresses entries designating one particular color and its shades, as well as compound words where one of the com ponents is the respective color name or a derivative based thereupon.In a separate group, due to its specific character, we examine color names denoting animal fur and nouns denoting animals of the respective colors.Verbs based on color names or their metaphorical meanings will not be analyzed in this paper because semantically they do not represent colors, or their connection with the particular color names is relative.
In addition, I have attempted to compare some specific color names found in K. Valdemārs' dictionary with Modern Russian and Latvian vocabulary.
The main objective of this article is the analysis of color names in one particular source -one of the most copious lexicographical editions compiled by a Latvian author 118 in the 19 th century.In order to evaluate the color names used in this dictionary as fully as possible, some other lexicographical sources of the 17 th , 18 th and 19 th centuries are used for comparison and deeper semantic analysis of the respective words.The aim is to emphasize the qualitative (and also quantitative, as regards the number of color names) superiority of K. Valdemārs' dictionary among other Latvian bilingual dic tionaries of the late 19 th century.
In order to give an insight into the usage of the words, examples are given from late 19 th century and also contemporary Russian, Latvian and German explanatory dictionaries, as well as from Latvian and Russian periodicals and fiction of the respec tive period.

The notion 'color'
To begin with, it seemed interesting to look at the representation of the noun krāsa (‚color') itself in the said dictionary.The entry цвěть (Modern Russian цвет 'color') is translated in Latvian (the original spelling and orthography used during that period is preserved in the quotations -e.g., vowel length in Latvian was then repre sented by adding h after the vowel, diphthong ie was spelt as ee, wordinitial z was then represented by the letter s, etc.) as 1. puķe 'flower', 2. seeds 'blossom', 3. krahsa, pehrwe 'paint', and in German as 1.Blume 'flower', 2. Bluethe 'blossom', 3. Farbe 'paint' (640), while the entry краска (which in Modern Russian basically means 'paint; substance used for coloring') is translated in Latvian as krahsa, pehrwe 'paint' and waiga sarkanums 'cheek redness' and in German as Farbe 'paint' and Wangenroethe 'cheek redness' (214).Since in the 19thcentury Russian language the first meaning of the noun краска was 'красный цвěть, краснота, краснина', the second meaning was 'всякое вещество, служащее для крашенiя, для окраски во всě цвěта', and the third meaning -'румянец' (ТСД, 1881/1955b, p. 186), both Latvian and German translations in the analyzed dictionary can be regarded as fully adequate.

The notion 'black' and its shades
The abstract color name is the adjective чёрный.The Russian part of the analyzed dictionary entry adds the word -день 'day' to the meaning Nr 3. The Latvian part provides the translation melns 'black', followed by Nr 2 giving a reference fig.and explanation netihrs, nespodrs 'dirty', and meaning Nr 3 with the translation ļauna deena 'evil/unlucky day'.The German order is analogous: schwarz; 2 fig.schmuzig; 3 Unglueckstag, Rothzeit 'unlucky day' (644).It is not clear why the Russian part has no meaning 2, perhaps it is a technical error.On the positive side, this is the only color name in this dictionary provided with metaphorical meanings as well ('dirty', 'evil').There is also the adverb чёрно -Latvian melni and German schwarz 'blackly' (644).

The notion 'blue' and its shades
Given the fact that there are two different names in Russian for naming dark and light color blue, we have to mention both adjectives denoting abstract light and dark blue color, respectively: голубой -Latvian sils (ka debesis) and German blau, himmelblau 'blue, skyblue' and (101) синiй -Latvian sils, tumschi sils and German blau, dunkelblau 'blue, dark blue' (557).Interestingly, the Latvian part of the dictionary entry translates голубой not as gaiši zils 'light blue' but sils (ka debesis) 'blue (as sky)', which essentially coincides with the explanations of adjective zils 'blue' in Modern Latvian dictionaries (see, for example, "Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca" and "Mūsdienu latviešu valodas vārdnīca" where zils is defined as 'having the color of a clear sky' (see LLVV, 1996, p. 636;MLVV, n.d.).

The notion 'brown' and its shades
In the context of K. Valdemārs' dictionary we cannot really speak of a relatively neutral, abstract adjective denoting the color brown.Several entries of the dictionary include adjectives describing this color, but each of them both in Latvian and German has certain indicators of shades, semantic restriction or specification: 1) бурый -Latvian bruhns, tumši bruhns and German braun, dunkelbraun 'brown, dark brown' (29; here and henceforth emphasis mine).The quoted Russian word is one of the oldest designations of this color in the Russian language; initially used to describe the color of animals' fur, but later its meaning was extended and specification was lost.Earlier it was used in almost all contexts and was wellknown in popular language, and also folklore and literary works, but it is not clear whether it described any specific tonality.Old Russian word бурый seems to have had the same role of an abstract color name as the word коричневый in Modern Russian, however, бурый did not remain the abstract denominator for color brown because of its emotional expressiveness, and also due to the adjective коричневый entering the Russian language (Бахилина, 1975, pp. 208-209, 219-228).
A. Vasilyevich, too, gives the adjective бурый as the only one which, originally having exclusively denoted the color of a horse, has later acquired a broader field of usage.However it was still used (especially in folklore and fiction) basically to describe the color of animals (Василевич, 2007); 2) мурýгiй -Latvian tumschi bruhns, behrs and German dunkelbraun 'dark brown' (252), 3) саврасый -Latvian gaischi behrs and Ger man hellbraun 'light brown' (544); 4) караковый -Latvian tumschibruhns, behrs (sirgs) 'dark brown (horse)' and German dunkelbraun 'dark brown'; in the Latvian translation the meaning is limited to denote only the brown color of a horse (198).
The adjective коричневый is not to be found in K. Valdemārs' dictionary because the word appeared in the Russian language in relatively recent times.Earliest texts where it appears date back to the 17 th century.Initially it occurred in business cor respondence when referring to clothing and textile color; in the 18 th century, too, коричневый and its older form коричный were mainly used in references to textiles and clothes (Бахилина, 1975, pp. 228-229).Russian linguist N. Bahilina writes that even in late 18th century and early 19 th century the color name коричневый had a rather limited use (Бахилина, 1975, p. 229).
The entry карiй (199) deserves special attention.This word in Modern Russian is used only to describe the brown color of human eyes and the coat of a horse (defined as 'о цвете глаз и масти лошадей' in ТСРЯ (1994, p. 244)), whereas in the Russian part of K. Valdemārs' dictionary there are no such indications.In the Latvian part of the dictionary entry we see again the adjective denoting horse color behrs and the neutral color adjective bruhns, but in the German part we see braun, braunroth 'brown, reddish brown', which suggests that the Russian adjective probably also has some nuance that distinguishes it from a neutral brown color.This is also confirmed by N. Bahilina who writes that initially карий, as well as гнедой, was used to describe the color of a horse and only later it started to denote the color of human eyes (Бахилина, 1975, p. 208).
The fact that nearly in every case the authors of the dictionary have added the adjective bērs (behrs) suggests that караковый and карiй, мурýгiй and мухортый, and саврасый and свěтлобурый were either considered as adjectives mainly used to describe horse coat, or we witness a kind of rivalry between bērs and brūns during that period.The first version is supported by the fact that also in V. Dahl's dictionary (1863-1866), караковый, мухортый and саврасый are defined as adjectives that describe horse's color or a horse with specific color features (ТСД 1, n.d.).
As concerns свěтлобурый 'light brown', it is interesting to note that in Modern Latvian such nuances of the adjective bērs are practically no longer used.If the use of gaiši bērs can still, though rarely, be found, the derivative pabērs was not found in the language material I excerpted.
Adjective муровый must be noted separately as it is not to be found neither in V. Dal's dictionary, nor in Modern Russian explanatory dictionary, nor in Russian lan guage corpus, but in K. Valdemārs' dictionary it is translated into Latvian as a derived word saļgans, pasalsch and German gruenlich 'greenish' (252), so, obviously, it indicates a specific shade of green.N. Bahilina's book gives, as we can assume, a semantically close compound мурозелен (Бахилина, 1975, p. 101).
Like with other color names, the dictionary gives a noun denoting a green spot or area, i.e. зелёность -Latvian saļums, saļa krahsa and German Gruen, gruene Farbe 'greenness, green color' (173). 125 The dictionary has also fixed a small number of compounds with the component зелёный which are sometimes translated in Latvian either with a corresponding compound or a simile construction, a collocation or a derivative, e.g.: мěднозелёный -Latvian warsalsch, salsch ka warsch 'copper green, green as copper' and German kupfergruen 'copper green' (254), свěтлозелёный -Latvian gaischi saļsch, saļgans 'light green, greenish' and German hellgruen 'light green' (551).
The dictionary has several semantically specific adjectives and their derivatives naming different shades of red, including degree of brightness and intensity.One of these is алый -Latvian gaischsarkans, sarts and German hellroth 'light red' (3) with deriva tive аловатый -Latvian pasarkans, sarts and German roetlich 'reddish' (2).According to semantic equivalence, if алый is translated as gaišsarkans, sārts 'light red', the word аловатый should be interpreted as pasarkans, pasārts or iesārts 'light reddish'.However, the authors of K. Valdemārs dictionary have not done so, perhaps considering that sārts is itself a light color -a red with a reduced intensity, so further reduction is not necessary.Or else, they probably assumed that it is not used in the actual language.
As regards the word пурпурь, it seems that in this particular case a pigment or substance for coloring is meant in Russian, since the notion of color as such is expressed by two adjectives -пурпурный and пурпуровый, which are based on the noun пурпур.The same can be said about карминь; the shade of color is denoted by карминовый and карминный, based on the noun кармин.(Садыкова, 2008) The final word, червлень, in Russian is also used to denote the coloring substance (see ТСД, 1882/1955d, p. 590), while the color shades are denoted by червленый and червчатый derived from this noun.Meanwhile, Latvian scharlaka krahsa and German scharlach are undoubtedly denotations of the color (see Latvian šarlaksarkans 'bright red' (LLVV, 1991, p. 336) and German scharlach 'leuchtend rote Farbe' (WDW, 2000(WDW, , p. 1090) 'ein brennendes Rot mit einem Stich ins Gelbe' (HDS, 1924, p. 581)).
The adjective бурнастый -Latvian sarkans ka lapsa, rauds 'red as a fox, ginger' and German fuchsroth 'foxred' ( 29) is also noteworthy.I have not managed to find this word either in Modern Russian explanatory dictionary, or in Russian language corpus, while V. Dal's dictionary of 1880 does not provide this adjective with any colorrelated meaning, it is used to describe the appearance of some parts of a bird's body: 'о голубяхъ, курахъ и другихъ птицахъ: хохлатыйи, мохноногiй' (ТСД, 1880/1955a, p. 143).Meanwhile, the Latvian part of K. Valdemārs' dictionary uses the simile sarkans kā lapsa and the adjective rauds, which is basically the same as ruds 'ginger'.Fox as a prototype of a color is also found in the German compound fuchsrot.
Among other things, the dictionary contains the adjective чермный and collocation Чермное море -Latvian sarkans; sarkana juhra and German roth; das rothe Meer 'red, the Red Sea' (644).Linguist and researcher of Russian color names N. Bahilina writes that the word чермный in Russian language is very archaic, it was used until the end of the 17th century and later lost in the standard language, but preserved in some dialects.She believes that чермный represents a bright, light red color (Бахилина, 1975, pp. 153, 154).The word had been used with the meaning of 'red' or 'purple', as well as of objects that are dyed with natural red pigments, but later it was used to refer to human hair or animal fur (Бахилина, 1975, pp. 155, 161).In V. Dal's dictionary this word is defined as 'червленый, багровый, темнокрасный; мутнаго краснаго цвěта' (ТСД, 1882/1955d, p. 593) In the case of the compound Чермное море, we can assume two options -1) to regard it as a symbolic name, actually unrelated to any specific shade of red (this assumption seems more probable, as the symbolic name Чермное море occurs in Rus sian already in 17th century texts (Бахилина, 1975, p. 92), 2) to regard it as representing the sea at sunset or sunrise when the waves have a red hue (suggested by the fact that neither Latvian sarkanā jūra nor German das rothe Meer in this entry are written with a capital letter.However, considering the period when the dictionary was made, this deviation from the current spelling rules could be understood).

The notion 'white' and its shades
This group contains words representing the color white and its shades.
The abstract color name given in the said dictionary is the adjective бěлый with diminutive form бěленькiй, and adverb бěло, translated in Latvian as balts, dim.baltinsch, balti, and in German as weiß, rein (31).The German word rein 'clean' suggests 130 that the authors noted this transfered meaning of the adjective balts, until then not indicated in any other lexicographical source of Latvian.
In Modern Latvian, too, the use of the compound baltmatis is relatively infre quent (e.g., in the contemporary periodicals site news.lvonly two instances of use of this word appear (NEWS)).The description baltiem matiem 'with white hair' would correspond to sirms 'grey/white [because of old age]', but fair hair is mostly denoted by the borrowed adjective blonds 'blonde'.
Speaking of the Latvian part of the entry, we can see that this adjective clearly indicates a reduced intensity of the color yellow, while pals (pāls or palss?) is the name of the color which is often attributed to the hair of an animal, usually a horse (especially if pals stands for pāls -an adjective describing a pale, yellowish gray horse, whose tail and mane are the same color as the body, or white (see A. Roze, 2012, p. 294)).For the German part, K. Valdemārs has chosen a neutral word denoting pale yellowish color (see e.g.WDW, 2000, p. 280).
The adjective палевый -Latvian los, eedseltens, pals and German hellgelb 'pale yellow' (361) also has a semantic specification.This entry is of interest because the authors have tried to reflect in Latvian as fully as possible the semantics of Rus sian палевый, providing as a translation three Latvian color names, each of which has its own area of usage and expresses certain color nuance.Thus the adjective loss (los) is used mainly to denote the color of an animal (usually a domestic one -horse, rarely a cow); loss is a "yellow, sandy yellow, golden [horse] with black mane and tail" (A.Roze, 2012, p. 294).The adjective palss (pals) is used to characterize both a horse's color and a shade of color.In Modern Latvian it is used in the meaning of 'dull yellow, yellow' (LLVV, 1986, p. 219), but in reference to a horse: "yellow, also dirtyyellow with pale yellow, offwhite or white tail and mane" (A.Roze, 2012, p. 294), while iedzeltens (eedseltens) is a neutral word denoting reduced intensity of the color yellow.Inter estingly, in Modern Russian палевый is used with the meaning 'бледно-жёлтый с розоватым оттенком' (ТСРЯ, 1994, p. 89) which has no real equivalent in Latvian.In V. Dal's dictionary, however, we can see that палевый is defined as 'соломенаго цвěта, блěдножелтoватый, бěложелтоватый изжелтабěлый, желтобěлесоватый; о лошадях: соловый, изабеовый; о собакахъ: половый; о голубяхъ: глинистый' (ТСД, 1882/1955c, p. 11).
Of some interest is the entry соколь that would be translated in Modern Latvian simply as vanags 'hawk', while in K. Valdemārs' dictionary we find the Latvian trans lation dseltens wanags, sarkandseltensis ehrglis 'yellow hawk, reddishyellow eagle', and German Falke 'falcon' (574).
The adjective серебристый -Latvian sudrabturigs, sudrabainsch; sudrabots and German silberhaltig, silberfarben 'silvery' (556) is to be mentioned outside the other groups.If in K. Valdemārs' dictionary серебристый denotes both something made of silver and having the color of silver, Modern Russian серебристый does not have the first of these meanings.In Modern Latvian, too, sudrabains is only something that has the characteristic silvery color and luster, not someting that is made of silver.
Among specifiers for shades of colors, we can also mention the adverb блěдно -Latvian bahli and German blass, blaßfarbig 'pale' (20), and derivatives of this adverb, which are, however, translated in the Latvian part as adjectives derived with prefixes or suffixes: б-алый -Latvian pasarkans and German blaßroth 'pale red' (20); б-голубой -Latvian silgans, pasils and German blaßblau 'pale blue' (20); б-зелёный -Latvian saļgans, pasaļsch and German blaßgrün 'pale green' (20); бěлесоватый -Latvian pabalgans and German wenig weißlich 'pale white, offwhite' (30).135 There is another aspect worthy of reflection.The dictionary of K. Valdemārs contains two types of derivative color names -derivative with pa-and derivative with -gan-.Both of them in Modern Latvian represent the same shade of color -one with a reduced intensity (which is semantically included in Russian блěдно голубой, and German blaßgrün), but there is no collocation bāli zaļš, suggesting that the use of compounds was not widespread in Latvian of that time and they became popular only later -during early and mid 20th century (we have to remember the categorical stand of the linguist J. Endzelīns against compounds, including such color names as debeszils and sniegbalts!(Endzelīns, 1980, p. 39)).

Conclusions
We can conclude that the Russian-Latvian-German Dictionary (1872) edited by K. Valdemārs provides very rich and valuable material for research, including research of color name semantics and morphology, since this dictionary includes not only abstract color designations and their derivatives (as most dictionaries published earlier and even afterwards) but also a variety of shades expressed in color names, as well as specific (e.g., describing animal fur, human hair or eyes) color designations.Many of these color names may not be familiar to the modern language user but, in my opinion, precisely because of this they are even more valuable.They allow to explore the unfamiliar and to enrich every interested reader's own vocabulary.Of course, when analyzing this material, it becomes obvious that there are still many undis covered layers of vocabulary.However, since the main purpose of this article was to look at the diversity of color names as offered by one of the most comprehensive 19 th century dictionaries (in my opinion), we would like to consider that this aim has been achieved, at least partly.-Endzelīns, J., Hauzenberga, E. (Vol. I 1934-1939;Vol. II 1938-1946)