The Last Twenty-Five Years of Polish Humanities Related to the History of the Nations and Countries of Former Yugoslavia, their Political and Cultural Relations with Poles, and Unionism Ideas in the Second Half of the 19th Century1

This work was supported by a grant from National Science Centre in Poland, called “Between two congresses in Prague: relations among the Slavs in Central and South-East Europe in 1848–1908” (2017/25/B/HS3/00240). Authors’ contribution: both authors participated equally in the concept of the study and drafting the manuscript. Competing interests: no competing interests have been declared. Publisher: Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 PL License (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/pl/), which permits redistribution, commercial and non-commercial, provided that the article is properly cited. © The Author(s) 2019. Antoni Cetnarowicz Jagiellonian University https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5309-7609


Introduction
Studies on the history of Slavdom, which go back to the turn of the 18 th and 19 th c., already have a long-established tradition in Poland. The development of Slavonic studies in the 19 th c. was strictly related to the development of Slavic studies, which at the time meant Slavic philology, i.e. the study of Slavic lan-guages and literatures. The first department of Slavic studies was established at Jagiellonian University in 1818 and has just celebrated its 200th anniversary. It was not until the end of the 19th century that historians started paying attention to Slavdom; however, they were more interested in the most ancient history of Slavic peoples. The Slavic Club, established in Kraków in 1901, and the monthly "Świat Słowiański" ["The Slavic World"] it published, played an important role. After Poland regained independence in 1918, Polish historical and Slavic studies made visible progress. Kraków played the leading role as it was there that the Slavic Department was created at Jagiellonian University in 1925. Meanwhile, at King John Casimir University in Lviv the first interdisciplinary studies on the ethnogenesis of Slavs were undertaken as a result of collaboration between the departments of Slavic studies, anthropology and prehistory. However, studies on the early modern history of Slavs were still of a relatively low standard.
After World War II, adopting a Marxist research methodology caused a shift in Polish historiography which left behind political history and embarked on socio-economic studies. Polish Slavic studies were reborn in Kraków, where the Slavic Department was re-established and over a dozen of whose subdepartments were concerned with the most recent history of Slavdom and the history of the Balkans. However, linguistics and studies on the genesis of Slavs continued to lead the way, while modern Slavic problems still sparked little interest among historians. Studies on the history of Western and Southern Slavs were also conducted at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. It was not until the 1980s that significant changes in the field of studies on Slavdom became visible; this was especially true in the case of addressing nationality issues.
After the political transformation in Poland in 1989, Polish Slavic studies continued to grow quite resiliently, although, as Krzysztof Makowski noted, "they are defined in quite a traditional way, i.e. as philological studies" (Makowski, 2013, p. 13). Studies on national stereotypes and national identity, mainly in the Balkans, are conducted at the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences, as well as at Jagiellonian University, the University of Warsaw, the University of Poznań, and the University of Silesia in Katowice. The Institute for Central and Eastern Europe, established in Lublin in 1991, has also been successfully active in this field.
Over the last twenty-five years, there has been a considerable increase in the number of scholarly institutions and academic journals which study the history of Southern Slavs. In 1991 in Kraków, the Commission for Central

Slovene studies
The history of Slovenes, a small Slavic nation at the foot of the Alps on the border between the Germanic/Romance and Slavic worlds, was almost unknown to the general Polish public until recently. It was not until the events related to the collapse of Yugoslavia in the first half of the 1990s and the establishment of independent Slovenia that the Polish public started to pay more attention to the existence and history of their southern brothers. Polish historians have devoted very little attention to 19th-century Slovene history -a time that was decisive for the shaping of this nation. Polish readers can find basic information and brief descriptions of events prior to the early 1990s only in larger syntheses about the history of Southern Slavic nations and Austria (Batowski, 1938;Wereszycki, 20153;Skowronek, Tanty & Wasileski, 1985).
A turning point came in 1990, when Jagiellonian University Press published a book entitled Słoweński ruch narodowy i jego stosunek do spraw polskich 1848-1879[The Slovene National Movement and Its Attitude Towards Polish Affairs 1848-1879, written by Antoni , a Kraków-based historian. A student of professors Henryk Wereszycki and Wacław Felczak, Antoni Cetnarowicz has since conducted systematic studies on the history of Slovenes and political relations between Poland and Slovenia in the 19 th c. and has published his findings in monographs, journals, and various Polish and foreign collective publications. The monograph mentioned above was an attempt to present the development of the Slovene national movement during its most important period, as well as its attitude towards Poles and Polish affairs. The author selected and expanded on several topics which best ous translations of Polish literary works. The author observed that Poles, on the other hand, were interested in Slovenes' rational behavior with regard to socio-political matters . The role of symbols in the shaping and establishing of national identity in Slovene politics was presented by Maciej Falski in two articles which were published in "Pamiętnik Słowiański" ["The Diary"] and "Poznańskie Studia Slawistyczne" ["The Poznań Slavic Studies"] .
Historical topics concerning the issue of Slovene national identity in the 19 th c. can be found in several works of Z. Darasz, the Slovene studies specialist mentioned above. The publications of this author, who stresses that he considers himself a Yugoslavian studies specialist, include works in which Slavophile and Yugoslavian elements of Slovene culture are strongly emphasized. After Slovenes rejected Illyrism, according to Darasz the alternative became the cult of Saints Cyril and Methodius. The same author also showed an interesting perspective on Slovene-Polish "cultural mutuality" in an article in "Świat Słowiański" ["The Slavic World"] (Darasz, 1998a(Darasz, , 2007. Władysław Kryzia also presented the shaping of the Slovene national identity in a concise way in his very useful textbook for Slavists, the longest chapter of which is devoted to the Slovene national and linguistic revival. He analyzed the phenomenon of the simultaneous development of linguistic unity, the sense of the Slovene nation, and the movement for a "United Slovenia" (Kryzia, 2008b). The same author wrote a sketch discussing nationality and linguistic problems in the memories of Josip Vošnjak, one of the leaders of the Slovene National Movement in the second half of the 19 th c. The author cites a fragment of Vošnjak's recollections about the best-known events and facts related to the national movement and the activity of its leaders in Styria, including the "mass rally" (tabor) in Ljutomer, or the sessions of the Styria State Parliament (Kryzia, 2008a).
As for Polish-Slovene political relations in the second half of the 19 th c., the subject matter is discussed extensively and comprehensively by A. Cetnarowicz in the monograph mentioned above, as well as in a number of his works published in Polish, Austrian, Slovene and German journals and collective works. The author also attempted to show these relations comprehensively in a number of sketches published in Polish, Slovene and German, which included not only examples of cooperation and mutual support (especially on the forum of the Viennese Imperial Council), but also criticisms of Polish policies and the nationalist movement in Poland (Cetnarowicz, 2007b(Cetnarowicz, , 2016a(Cetnarowicz, , 2016b. The Slovene attitude towards Polish affairs during the Spring of Nations was the subject of A. Cetnarowicz's presentation during the international symposium in Ljubljana in June 1991 (a mere two days after Slovenia's independence was proclaimed), which was published a year later in Miklošičev zbornik [F. Miklošič's Anthology] . Slovene opinions about the activity of Polish deputies in the Imperial Council during the first two years of the Dual Monarchy and the Slovenes' attitude towards Galician autonomy was presented by A. Cetnarowicz in two articles published in the leading Slovene historical journal, "Zgodovinski časopis" .
Meanwhile, the voices and opinions of the Galician press concerning the Slovene national movement in the first years of the Dual Monarchy, when a sort of coalition of Polish, Slovene and Tyrolese deputies was formed in the Imperial Council, were discussed by A. Cetnarowicz in two articles (Cetnarowicz, 1998c(Cetnarowicz, , 2001c. The same author presented more detailed Polish opinions and views about Slovenes and other Southern Slavs in materials from an international conference on stereotypes in former Yugoslavia that took place in Tratten/Pošišče in Austria in 1996 (Cetnarowicz, 2002a).
A look at the other side, namely the political life in Galicia from the viewpoint of the Slovene national movement and Slovene opinions about Polish-Ukrainian and Polish-Russian relations, was included by this author in two other articles (Cetnarowicz, 2011c(Cetnarowicz, , 2015a. While Polish policy concerning Ruthenians was consistently criticized by Slovenes, they were very supportive and appreciative of the Polish fight against German pressure in the Prussian partition, as A. Cetnarowicz showed elsewhere (2009a).

Croatian studies
Polish historical and Slavic studies since the political transformation in 1989 have devoted much more attention to the history of Croats and Polish-Croatian relations in the second half of the 19 th century than to Slovenes. However, we should note that this subject matter was not previously obscure. Since 1986, when W. Felczak and T. Wasilewski published Historia Jugosławii [A History of Yugoslavia], Polish readers have had access to a synthesis of the 19 th -century history of the Croatian land written by W. Felczak -an excellent expert on the history of Croatia in this period Felczak, , 1967.
With regard to general encyclopedic publications, we should mention Leksykon tradycji chorwackich [A Lexicon of Croatian Traditions]; written by Joanna Rapacka, a specialist in Slavic studies, this is a compendium of knowledge about the most important events and figures in the history of Croatia . We owe a number of monographs and other works on the history of Croatian culture (including some about the period in question) to the great historical intuition and knowledge of this outstanding, prematurely deceased Slavist. Her works include a popular science synthesis of the history of the Republic of Ragusa, a collection of sketches collectively entitled Godzina Herdera [Herder's Hour] about Serbian-Croatian relations and the Yugoslavian idea, as well as her posthumously published last book entitled Śródziemno morze -Europa -Bałkany [The Mediterranean -Europe -the Balkans], in which she devoted the majority of her attention to describing Croatian culture in the 19 th c., including the problems of the birth and transformations of the Croatian national identity 4. Her two studies on the role of regionalism and on the shaping of national ideologies, as illustrated by Croatia, are very valuable sources of knowledge about Croatian culture .
Polish historians have addressed the topic of Croatian history in the second half of the 19 th c. in many works, but they have usually focused on Polish-Croatian relations or the idea of Pan-Slavism. Relatively few authors have conducted studies strictly concerning the history of Croatia. A few works on the political and social history of Croatians in the second half of the 19 th c. were published by Antoni Giza, a Szczecin-based historian, at the beginning of this millennium (Giza, , 2001e, 2002d. Dariusz Dmowski, who represents the same academic circle, addressed the Croatian national movement in Dalmatia, the Croatian attitude towards the Dual Monarchy, and the development of the Yugoslavian idea in Croatian lands in the early 20 th c.  In an attempt to explain why this country attracted so many Polish wanderers, Katarzyna Wołek (later: Wołek-San Sebastian) devoted an article to the image of Dalmatia in 19 th -century Polish travel writing .
The history of the national revival in Dalmatia was depicted by Antoni Cetnarowicz in great detail and on the basis of extensive queries in Croatian, Austrian, Italian, and Vatican archives, as well as a wealth of printed materials, contemporary press and extensive multilingual literature (Cetnarowicz, 2001d(Cetnarowicz, , 2006b(Cetnarowicz, , 2008a. We also owe to this author a number of detailed studies on the subject that have been published in journals and other Polish and foreign publications (Cetnarowicz , 2001b(Cetnarowicz , 2001e, 2001f, 2001h, 2001i, 2006a(Cetnarowicz , 2007a(Cetnarowicz , 2007c(Cetnarowicz , 2009c(Cetnarowicz , 2011c(Cetnarowicz , 2018. In 2001, an encyclopedic entry on the history of Croatia written by Antoni Cetnarowicz was published in the series Encyklopedia Historyczna Świata [A Historical Encyclopaedia of the World] (Cetnarowicz, 2001a).
In a thorough monograph based on archival sources and literature on the subject, Antoni Cetnarowicz also addressed a topic which is almost completely unknown to Polish readers, i.e. the national revival in Istria in the second half of the 19 th c., (Cetnarowicz, 2010b(Cetnarowicz, , 2014b. As this book's reviewers noted, not only had this topic not been tackled by Polish historians, but more importantly, some points relevant to this subject matter had also been neglected by Croatian, Italian and Slovene historians. Some more specific themes concerning the national movement in Istria became the subject of several other works by this author (Cetnarowicz, 2006c(Cetnarowicz, , 2009e, 2010a(Cetnarowicz, , 2015b(Cetnarowicz, , 2017a. Since 1989, several Polish historians have continued or resumed studies on Polish-Croatian relations in the second half of the 19 th c. Piotr Żurek, a historian and Slavist connected to the Silesian circles, published several books in Polish and Croatian which presented the Hôtel Lambert faction's relations with the Croats in the mid-1800s, the figure of Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer and his relations with Poles, as well as Polish-Croatian relations during the January Uprising of 1863, in particular Eugen Kvaternik's and Dubrovnik's attitude towards the Polish insurrection . After Croatia applied for EU membership, in 2006 the same scholar co-organized the international scientific conference "Poland and Croatia in Central Europe (European integration in tradition and space)", which published its materials a year later (Żurek, 2007). Piotr Żurek also devoted some other studies to Polish-Croatian relations that mainly concerned the activity of the Hôtel Lambert faction among Croats (Żurek, 2005a, 2005c, 2007a, 2007c, 2012a). Stanisław Pijaj, a Kraków-based historian, also discussed the impact of the Hungarian-Croatian agreement of 1868 on the shape of the Galician Diet resolution of 24 September 1868  Meanwhile, the echoes of the Serbian and Croatian nationalist movement in Dalmatia in the Galician press and the attitude of this movement's activists towards the January Uprising of 1863 were the topic of several articles penned by Antoni Cetnarowicz and published by Polish and Croatian publishing houses. Adam Świątek presented the image of the uprising in the Bay of Kotor in 1869 in "Gazeta Narodowa" ["The National Gazette"], while Kazimierz Karolczak showed Opatija in the late 19 th c. as seen through the eyes of the Polish aristocrats who frequently visited this Adriatic resort (Cetnarowicz 2002b(Cetnarowicz , 2003a(Cetnarowicz , 2011a(Cetnarowicz , 2013bKarolczak, 2017). We should also mention Tomasz Pudłocki's article about the journey through the Croatian lands in 1909 of the Galician politician and educator, Franciszek Tomaszewski (2016).
Over the last twenty-five years, the topic of Polish-Croatian historical and cultural relations has also appeared in the works of Slavists such as Joanna Rapacka, Maciej Czerwiński, and Sylwia Nowak-Bajcar ).
In the period since the political transformation, i.e. after Croatia regained independence, Polish Slavists, especially specialists on Croatia, have been very interested in -and consequently published many works on -the ideas of nation, national awareness and identity. Studies on this subject matter were undertaken by the Slavist circles in Kraków and Warsaw, which resolutely abandoned the old methodology of so-called "central narratives" and included the comparative method and interdisciplinary approach in their research process. In the Slavist circle in Kraków, this subject matter (mainly in the Croatian context) was taken up by Maria Bobrownicka, Maciej Czerwiński, Magdalena Dyras, Aleksandra Borowiec, and Dominika Kaniecka Czerwiński, 2005Czerwiński, , 2007aKaniecka, 2014).
In the Slavist circle in Warsaw, this research trend was represented by the aforementioned Joanna Rapacka, and at present it is expanded on by  [1860][1861], in which he attempted to explain the attitude of Croats, who were strengthening their national identity, towards Vienna and Pest at the beginning of the Habsburg Monarchy (Falski, , 2008Kobylińska, Falski, Filipowiecz, 2016a.

Serbian studies
Over the last twenty-five years, Polish historians and Slavists have not devoted much attention to the history of Serbs and Serbia in the second half of the 19 th c. However, Joanna Rapacka, the aforementioned specialist on the history and culture of Southern Slavs, analyzed the history of the Kosovo myth and the development of Serbian anti-Occidentalism in two in-depth studies .
Polish studies on relations with Serbs in the 19 th c. essentially focused on the first half of the 1840s and the activity of the Hôtel Lambert faction. Detailed studies based on extensive queries in Polish, Serbian, French, English and Austrian archives were conducted by Antoni Cetnarowicz, who published his findings in a monograph and in Polish, Austrian, Serbian and Croatian publications. He showed the undeniable role that the group of émigrés gathered around Prince Adam Czartoryski played in the process of modernization of the Serbian state and society, as well as in shaping Serbia's Yugoslavian policy (Cetnarowicz, 1989(Cetnarowicz, , 2003b(Cetnarowicz, , 2006d(Cetnarowicz, , 2017b. The problems of the genesis and Polish inspirations behind the state document published in 1844 -the so-called Načertanije -were addressed by A. Giza and P. Żurek ).
If we look at just the second half of the 19 th c., Polish achievements are much more modest. We owe the image of the history of the Serbian nation and state in Serbian historiography and the role of the Orthodox Church to Dorota Gil, a Kraków-based Slavist . Mirosław Dymarski, a political scientist from the Wrocław circle, discussed the shaping of the political system in Serbia and the foreign policy of Belgrade in the 19 th and early 20 th c., while Antoni Giza addressed the state of Serbian education and schooling in the 19 th c. . In 2018, Dariusz Faszcza, a military historian specializing in Bulgarian problems, published a political and military study on the Bulgarian-Serbian war of 1885, while Dariusz J. Gregorczyk wrote about the Serbian-Turkish war of 1876 . Piotr Żurek published articles in which he discussed Cardinal Mieczysław Ledóchowski's relations with the Catholic Church in Serbia in the second half of the 19 th c., while Stanisław Pijaj described the reputable Serbian Hristić family's largely unknown relations with Poland .
We should also mention historians and political scientists who study the problems of Kosovo and Serbian-Albanian relations. Wojciech Szczepański was the only Polish scholar to study these issues with regard to the 19 th century ; we should also mention a valuable article written by Andrzej Malinowski concerning the system of millets in Kosovo (Malinowski, 2012). We also should not forget the works focusing on the 20 th c. or contemporary times that also included the 19 th -century context that were penned by Danuta Gibas-Krzak (2009), Maciej Skorczewski (2013), Irena Stawowy- , pp. 23-49), and Sylwia Nowak-Bajcar (1999. Studies on the Serbian historical novel were the subject of Bogusław Zieliński's monograph, while M. Koch presented the main figures of Serbian Romanticism in contemporary popular literature Koch, 2011). The Slavist Maria Dąbrowska-Partyka penned an interesting sketch of the history of Hungarian Serbs and their role in the process of the shaping of the modern Serbian identity . Sylwia Nowak-Bajcar, who focuses on 20 th c. Serbian literature, is the author of some works about the 19 th c. . Among Slavists, Damian Kubik also wrote about the Dalmatian Serbs at that time (Kubik, 2017b).
This statement seems to be valid at present as well, even though it was made almost sixteen years ago.
An . Due to the fact that this work was prepared by philologists, the authors focused on language in their analyses (Wrocławski, Bogusławska & Różycki, 2003). There is no work that reviews historical publications on the topic.
However, this does not mean that Polish humanities concerning Bosnia in the second half of the 19 th c. have not developed over the last twenty-five years. Since 1989, Polish historians have been keenly interested in, e.g., the problem of Polish settlers in Bosnia and Herzegovina after this province was occupied by Austria-Hungary. Prior to 1878, northern Bosnia (the territories from the River Sava to the city of Banja Luka) was sparsely populated. The situation changed in the aftermath of the Austrian-Hungarian occupation and the announcing of a settlement program. A period of colonization started in 1895 and lasted for a decade. Members of nations inhabiting the other parts of the Habsburg State, including Poles, came to settle on Bosnian lands; encouraged by the privileges and land offered to them, they volunteered to go to the province and several dozen Polish settlements were established in northern Bosnia as a result. At the same time, Poles were part of the administrative apparatus of the province. Before the outbreak of World War I, almost half of the officials in Bosnia and Herzegovina came from the other Slavic states of the monarchy, especially those of Catholic and Uniate denominations, and many Poles (Вяземская, 2011, p. 168). The Polish historians who have addressed this subject matter include Tomasz Jacek Lis (2012Lis ( , 2013Lis ( , 2014aLis ( , 2014bLis ( , 2015aLis ( , 2015bLis ( , 2016Lis & Maleszka, 2015), Franciszek Kwaśniak (Kwaśniak & Orlovac, 2013), Jan , Magdalena , Dariusz J. Gregorczyk ( , 2012, Łukasz Chimiak (2013), Józef ), Katarzyna Pielech (2008 and Paulina . Apart from these authors' original works, source editions of recollections of Poles active in Bosnia in the second of the 19 th c. were also published (Krajewska [z Kosmowskich], 1989)5. Prior to 1989, the topic of Polish settlers in Bosnia was practically unrecognized, but after the political transformation Polish scholars (mainly historians and ethnologists) largely succeeded in filling this gap in Polish historiography.
With regard to Polish-Bosnian relations, we should also note the problem of the Hôtel Lambert faction's activity in Bosnia in the 1840s, which tapered off after the Spring of Nations. Paralleling the earlier studies of Jerzy Skowronek, Piotr Żurek has been researching this topic and publishing in Polish, Croatian and Bosnian, although his studies focus on Croatian affairs at the beginning and first half of the 19th c. and, more recently, on the 20th century (Żurek, 2012a, 2015, 2017).
The other areas of Polish studies on the political and social history of Bosnia in the second half of the 19 th c. are evidently overshadowed by studies on the 20 th c. and contemporary times, especially the war in the 1990s and its aftermath. The only scholar to attempt a synthetic approach to this period was Antoni Giza, who penned monographs and articles about Bosnia in the second half of the 19 th c. . Other authors of valuable publications are Aleksandra Stankowicz and Andrzej Dziadzio, who wrote about Bosnia during the Habsburg period, and Mateusz Maleszka, who wrote about Bosnian Jews during the period in question, among others Lis & Maleszka, 2015). Meanwhile, travel accounts about Bosnia in the 19 th c. have attracted the interest of philologists. We should mention articles written by Krystyna , Mateusz Seroka (2011, Marek M. , Milica Jakóbiec-Semkowa (2016a, 2017a), and Maciej . With regard to scholars who focus on the 20 th c., it is worth noting Danuta Gibas-Krzak, whose synthetic history of Bosnia includes a long chapter on the second half of the 19 th c. (Gibas-Krzak, 2016). Additionally, this political scientist, who is based in the city of Częstochowa, is the author of an article about the twilight of the Ottoman rule in this area . Scholars who study the topic of the shaping of the Muslim/Bošnjaci identity also focus on the 20 th c., but they always refer to the second half of the 19 th c. to provide the necessary context for the processes they discuss Balcer, 2008).
Since 1989, Polish studies on Bosnia in the second half of the 19 th c. have mainly focused on the topic of the Austrian-Hungarian colonization program, which was the most important point of Polish-Bosnian contacts at that time. Polish studies on the political and social history of Bosnia in the 19 th c. are overshadowed by interest in the 20 th c. and contemporary times, even though the co-existence of Poles from Galicia and the inhabitants of Bosnia for over thirty years created many other points of political, social, scientific and cultural contact. At the same time, there is little interest in the first three decades of the history of Bosnia during the period in question (1848-1878), when the province was under Ottoman rule and Polish-Bosnian contacts were rather limited.
Like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sandžak (which was known as the Sandžak of Novi Pazar at that time) was under Austrian-Hungarian occupation in 1878-1908. Studies on this territory usually focus on Muslims/Bošnjaci. For these two reasons, we decided to discuss Polish literature in this area in the 19 th c. together with Bosnia, even though after the Balkan wars Sandžak was divided between Serbia and Montenegro.
Studies on Sandžak mainly focus on the 20 th c. and contemporary times, while the second half of the 19 th c. is on the margin of these reflections and merely provides the context or introduction to the topic. The development of national identity among the Muslim inhabitants of this territory is at the center of scholars' attention. We should firstly mention a book written by Krzysztof Marcin Zalewski entitled Naród, religia, rasa: muzułmańskie ideologie i ruchy narodowe pogranicza w PołudniowoWschodniej Europie: przykład Sandżaka nowopazarskiego w XX wieku [Nation, Religion, Ethnicity. Muslim Ideologies and National Movements in the Borderland of SouthEastern Europe: The Case of the Sandžak of Novi Pazar in the 20 th Century], which includes chapters that introduce the period in question . Texts which focus on contemporary topics but also include more general remarks on the discussed period have been penned by Dorota Gil, a philologist, and Anna Jagiełło-Szostak, a political scientist Jagiełło-Szostak, 2015). Sandžak in the 19 th c. is another topic which remains practically unresearched by Polish humanities.

Montenegrin studies
Polish studies on Montenegro in the second half of the 19 th c. were practically non-existent in communist times, and they have not developed since 1989. The country continues to hold the interest of only Slavists and political scientists who focus on the 20 th c. or contemporary times. In 2007, two philologists, Krzysztof Wrocławski and Magdalena Bogusławska, prepared a valuable analysis of Polish studies on Montenegro, but it does not contain any information relevant to the second half of the 19 th c. and early 20 th c. . The situation has not changed. We should mention an article about the 1876 war between Turkey and Serbia and Montenegro by Dariusz J. , and a paper by Magdalena  about Polish travel literature concerning Montenegro from the end of the 19 th century. The topic of Montenegro during this period was also addressed in articles written by Wojciech ), Mirosław Dymarski (2017b), Piotr Żurek (2012b, and Wiktor Hedba (2012), but none of these texts focuses strictly on the second half of the 19 th c.

Macedonian studies
Studies on the history of Macedonia lead to a number of problems related to the fact that Macedonia is one of the youngest European nations, and its status in the second half of the 19 th c. is debatable. In a sense, Polish humanities reflects this problem. Following in the Bulgarian and Greek footsteps, some scholars claim that a separate Macedonian nation did not exist during that period (and does not even exist at present); others, like Irena Stawowy-Kawka, point to the 1860s as the time when we can start to speak of a Macedonian nation; still others, for instance Piotr Majewski, identify the period after 1945 as the beginning of the shaping of a separate Macedonian nation. The second half of the 19 th c. is key for Macedonia and Macedonians in terms of the contemporary history of this land, as well as social and identity changes among the people who inhabit it (Czamańska & Szulc, 2002, pp. 21-33;Miodyński, 2002, pp. 75-89).
Since 1989, Slavic philologists have prepared bibliographies and texts summarizing the state of Polish studies on Macedonia. We should mention an exhaustive book written by Krzysztof Wrocławski, Magdalena Bogusławska and Ewa Wróblewska-Trochimiuk (2009) (which includes a list of works and studies covering the period from the beginning of Polish interest in Macedonian affairs until 2009), as well as articles published by Lilianna  and Lilla . Historians have not yet attempted to prepare similar works.
Speaking of studies on Macedonia in the second half of the 19 th c. that have been conducted since 1989, there is an important group of pro-Bulgarian historians who assume that a separate Macedonian nation did not exist during that time (and perhaps still does not exist) but was part of the Bulgarian nation. The books and articles written by Antoni  and Andrzej ) make that assumption, and their works can be qualified as part of Polish historiography on Bulgarian affairs in the second half of the 19 th c.6 Jarosław Rubacha is slightly more cautious in this regard, although in the end he supports the idea of a very close connection between Macedonians and Bulgarians in the second half of the 19 th c. (Rubacha, , pp. 42-63, 2012 The Greek perspective is much less often represented in Polish historiography. It is worth noting the translation of the book by Martis Nikolaos; however, it contains only a few pages about the second half of the 19 th c. .

Page 18 of 65 Antoni Cetnarowicz, Krzysztof Popek
The Last Twenty-Five Years of Polish Humanities… toriography -published in 1996, which was badly flawed due to my lack of access to Bulgarian sources. It was not until I published the next monograph, Państwa bałkań skie wobec kwestii macedońskiej w latach 1878-1918[Balkan States and the Macedo nian Problem in 1878-1918, two years later, that I was able to correct many previous opinions, expressed under the misleading influence of Macedonian historiography; the historical truth emerging from the Bulgarian sources could in no way be challenged by biased, fabricated sources from Yugoslavia, clumsily supporting Macedonism [i.e. the idea of the separateness of the Macedonian nation -author's note].
Bulgarian sources and documents explicitly show that Macedonia was predominantly inhabited by a Bulgarian population […] (Giza, 2003, p. 8).
Another good example of this trend is a source edition concerning Macedonia, published as the second volume of Historia Bułgarii 1870-1915: materiały źródłowe z komentarzami [A History of Bulgaria 1870-1915, written by Jarosław Rubacha and Andrzej Malinowski; this is in fact a selection of Bulgarian sources (or ones which share the Bulgarian vantage point) concerning Macedonia at that time (Rubacha & Malinowski, 2007). It should be emphasized that adopting this viewpoint in no way lessens the value of these works, and the studies on Macedonia's history in the second half of the 19 th c. conducted by Giza, Rubacha and Malinowski should be considered the most valuable achievements of Polish historiography since 1989. It is worth noting that this trend gained recognition in Bulgaria, as illustrated by the fact that Antoni Giza's monograph about the Balkan states and the Macedonian problem, which basically focused on Bulgarian politics, was translated into Bulgarian (Гиза, 2001).
Other scholars have also focused on Macedonia in the second half of the 19 th c. in a handful of articles, looking at the history of this area from an external perspective. Mirosław Dymarski, a political scientist, analyzed the image of Macedonians in Serbian diplomatic documentation from the early 20 th c. (Dymarski, 2017), while Jędrzej Paszkiewicz, a historian, looked at Macedonia through the lens of Italian politics . Also, Rigels Halili is a Polish researcher of Albanian origin from Warsaw University; he is the author of an article about the Albanian National Revival and its relations to Macedonia (Halili, 2002).
The works in Polish which accept the separateness of the Macedonian nation describe the second half of the 19 th c. only fragmentarily and mostly focus on the 20 th c. Extensive fragments concerning this period were included in synthetic historical works about Macedonia penned by Irena Sta-wowa- )7, Paweł Olszewski (2010, and Waldemar . Representatives of other disciplines have also been active in this field; they include Piotr , an anthropologist, Maciej Kawka and Paweł Płaneta (2013), who are both media specialists, Lilla Moroz-  and Lech , who are both Slavists.
The topic of Polish-Macedonian relations in the second half of the 19 th c. is very poorly examined by Polish humanities and this situation has not changed since 1989. If we disregard the works about the Polish aspects of the Kresna-Razlog Uprising, which usually assume that the movement was Bulgarian in nature (Klejn, 2005) The modest achievements of Polish humanities with regard to Macedonia in the second half of the 19 th c. stem from a lack of Polish-Macedonian points of contact. Polish historians who specialize in the 19 th c. usually conclude that the Slavs inhabiting Macedonia in that period were Bulgarians, and events such as the Kresna-Razlog Uprising or the Ilinden Uprising were part of the Bulgarian national liberation movement. They use sources of Bulgarian origin and at the same time study the history of Bulgaria and look at the history of Macedonia through this lens. Interpretations in which these events are related to the emerging Macedonian nation can be found in Polish literature in the works of scholars who focus on the 20 th c. or contemporary times, which is why they are described in a general or fragmentary way. Few of these scholars are historians -in fact, Irena Stawowa-Kawka is the only one that comes to mind -and the majority of such studies are carried out by political scientists, philologists and ethnologists.

The problems of national identity and unionism ideas
The war which broke out in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and led to the collapse of the state drew the attention of Polish historians, Slavists and political scientists to this area and prompted a number of research projects and studies on the genesis of conflicts in the Balkans, issues related to national identity, and the idea of unionism among Southern Slavs. The political atmosphere which accompanied these events on the European and global scale was not conducive to these efforts, and the world media competed against each other in depicting a negative image of the Balkans. As Bogusław Zieliński observed, this led to "stereotyping Southern Slavs in the Polish political discourse" . Deep changes also occurred in the historiographies of Southern Slavic countries with regard to the history of the 19 th c., which is the topic of our article. The historiographies during the period of political transformation and the fifteen years that followed were analyzed by Antoni Cetnarowicz (2013c).
In the aftermath of increased public interest and demand, several books were published at that time by Antoni , Leszek Podhorodecki (2000), Marek , Wiesław Walkiewicz (2003), and Izabela , which generally addressed problems related to the history of former Yugoslavia and its collapse.
Slavist circles, especially those in Kraków and Poznań, played an active role in the ongoing discourse about this subject matter. In the former circle, the discourse resulted in two positions focusing on the issue of changes in the awareness and spiritual culture of the former Yugoslavian nations and the problem of reinterpreting the cultural tradition in the post-Yugoslavian countries (Kornhauser, 1999;. In the Poznań circle, a position emerged that focused on the national and supra-national model of culture in Central Europe and on the Balkan Peninsula (Zieliński, 2002).
Historians, although they were still a small group, continued studies on the development of modern ideas of a nation, state, and Pan-Slavic unity, and the Polish presence in these processes. In the last years of his life, Jerzy Skowronek ( , 1992 took to studying the Polish attitude towards Balkan national movements, as well as the attitude of Balkan nations and states towards the January Uprising and the vision of East-Central Europe in Adam J. Czartoryski's programs. Antoni , apart from authoring the aforementioned book about the birth and collapse of Yugoslavia, also presented the origins and development of the Yugoslavian idea, including its Polish aspects, while Piotr Żurek (2007b) discussed the ongoing historiographic debates about the emergence of Yugoslavism.
As we have mentioned, as a result of the situation in the Balkans following the collapse of Yugoslavia, matters related to national awareness and identity, historical notions, as well as the shaping of unionism and unification ideas in the 19 th c. became the center of attention for historians and Slavists alike. As for historians, these topics were continued or resumed by Henryk Batowski (1994), Antoni Cetnarowicz (2004, 2009d, Antoni , Elżbieta , and Jarosław Kilias (2000). Antoni Cetnarowicz ( , 2005Cetnarowicz ( , 2013aCetnarowicz ( , 2016dCetnarowicz ( , 2016c endeavored to show the Polish contribution to the development of national movements and the shaping of the idea of unity among Southern Slavs in several of his works.
Slavists turned out to be a much more active group during that period with regard to studying problems concerning national and cultural awareness, identity, and the idea of Slavic unity.
In the Slavist circle in Kraków, such studies were very successfully continued by the nestor Maria , who was the author of a number of works, publisher of post-conference materials, and initiator and co-organizer of the memorable symposium in Castel Gandolfo in 1996, which was under the patronage of Pope John Paul II, who also participated (Bobrownicka, Suchanek & Ziejka, 1997).
The subjects of national identity and Slavic unity have also been addressed by other representatives of this circle: Maria , Magdalena , Maciej Czerwiński (2005, Dorota , Aleksandra , Sylwia Nowak-Bajcar (2012a, 2012b), and Damian Kubik (2012Kubik ( , 2015. The problem of changes in the cultural awareness of the former Yugoslavian nations was discussed in a volume edited by Julian Kornhauser (1999).
The academic circles in Poznań and Warsaw were also very active in this area. In Poznań, Bogusław Zieliński's works and activity concerning the problem of national identity are the most notable; the author was a co-organizer of important publishing initiatives showing models of culture in Central Europe and on the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the history of the idea of Slavic unity in the context of the changes which took place in the aftermath of the war in Yugoslavia in the 1990s Mikołajczak, Szulc & Zieliński, 2004). J. Grela (1996), also based in Poznań, penned an article about the idea of Slavic unity in the early 20 th c., published in "Acta Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza" ["Records of the Adam Mickiewicz University"].
In the Warsaw circle, apart from the works of the three Slavists mentioned above who work in the Team for Studies on Slavic Cultures on the Outskirts of the Habsburg Monarchy, the problems of Slavic unity, especially in the Croa-tian context, were studied by Lilla , while Joanna Goszczyńska edited a volume about the cultural identity of Slavs .
We should also note a position which focuses on the image of Southern Slavs in Polish literature in the 19 th and 20 th c. (Stępnik & Gabryś, 2010)

Summary
Studies on the relations between Southern Slavs and Poles have attracted considerable interest from Polish historians, while since 1989 topics strictly related to the history of the nations and states of former Yugoslavia in the second half of the 19 th c. have remained the domain of Slavists. More than half of the mentioned historical works were penned by philologists, and many others were by political scientists; on one hand, this leads to the greater interdisciplinarity of such works, but on the other hand many of them were not based on archive queries or a new corpus of sources. The popularity of Southern Slavic topics related to the Polish public's interest in the war in former Yugoslavia was rather limited to the 1990s; it had an influence on political scientists and Slavists, and only to a lesser extent on historians. Moreover, these events did not have a positive impact on the objectivity of the discourse as studies on the second half of the 19 th c. still remain overshadowed by studies on the 20 th c. We should also note here that Polish historians are generally much more interested in the problems of Eastern Slavs than Southern ones.
After 1989, Polish historians studying the nations which were later to become Yugoslavia during the second half of the 19 th c. turned out to be more prolific than they had been prior to the political transformation. Although in communist times there was a tendency to study Slavdom in the spirit of strengthening relations among "sister nations", Yugoslavia, which was not part of the Eastern Bloc, was not included in this as fully as, e.g., Eastern Slavs. This translated into restrictions on foreign travel. The political transformation in Poland created new conditions for taking on studies on a number of topics. There has been a visible development of historiography concerning Croatian affairs and Polish-Bosnian relations resulting from the Austrian-Hungarian colonization. This has stemmed from the greater mobility of Polish scholars, who now have much brighter prospects of working in foreign archives, libraries and institutions. Moreover, an increasing number of books and articles are available in digital form. On the other hand, since the 1990s the number of published books and scholarly texts has increased rapidly, as has the number of higher education institutions, journals, and publishing houses in Poland, which in itself it does not translate into a higher quality of research, but it does have an influence on the number of available publications.
At the same time, some topics remain obscure, such as Serbian and Montenegrin affairs, which seem to be completely neglected in comparison with studies on Croatian topics. Slovene and Bosnian studies have made a lot of progress, but there are still many unresearched areas there. In the case of Macedonian affairs, a problem of a different nature has arisen: they are often treated as an inseparable part of the history of Bulgaria. Agičić, D. (1998). Krótki rys stosunków chorwacko-polskich na przestrzeni dziejów. Pro glas, 8, 6-8. Agičić, D. (2000). Echa powstania styczniowego w Chorwacji. Prace Komisji Środkowoeuro pejskiej PAU, 8, 39-48. Agičić, D. (2003). Idee niepodległościowe wśród Chorwatów do I wojny światowej